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Constatant les lacunes des astrologues dans le domaine des
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Constatant les lacunes des astrologues dans le domaine des
sciences sociales (hommes et femmes, structures
nationales et supranationales etc), la FLAP assurera à ses
étudiants des connaissances de première main et les plus
récentes qui leur serviront de socle pour appréhender
l'astrologie et en repenser les contours.
.
Soutenez nous en achetant à notre librairie en ligne sur priceminister/Rakuten VULCAINJH.
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mercredi 6 septembre 2023
Esperança Valls' Pujol Nahmanides' astrological and religious thinkings and the views of the Contempranean Catalan Christian Sages
NAHMANIDES’ ASTROLOGICAL AND RELIGIOUS
THINKING AND THE VIEWS OF THE
CONTEMPORANEOUS CATALAN CHRISTIAN SAGES
ESPERANÇA VALLS-PUJOL*
Institut d’Estudis Món Juïc
ABSTRACT. This paper examines the astrological and religious thinking of Moshe ben
Nahman (also known as Ramban or Nahmanides) and the intellectual connections in this field
with two of the most outstanding Christian thinkers of his time, Ramon Llull and Arnau de
Vilanova. Nahmanides, like many medieval scholars, admitted an astral influence, but he did
not accept astrology as a divinatory science. He incorporated astrological doctrines in his
exegetical works, assuming that Israel is not determined by any star because it only responds to
God. Yet the study of medieval medicine and its application cannot be separated from
astrology practice because it was considered that the stars had a direct influence not only on
the development of the human body, from birth to death, but also in the disease processes
which affect it. Ramban and his disciple Solomon ben Adret accepted and practiced astrological
medicine. Llull and de Vilanova also devoted themselves to this discipline. All of them agree on
the influence of the stars on humankind but condemned astral magic. Like Ramban, Llull
rejects other astrological methods considered non-scientific in his time, such as prediction
through horoscope. Thus, these thinkers tried to develop an astrology that was not in
contradiction with divine omnipotence or free will.
KEYWORDS: Moshe ben Nahman, Medieval Jewish Astrology, Medieval Christian Astrology,
Arnau de Vilanova, Ramon Llull
Introduction
The Judaism that developed in Catalonia is exceptional and shares with
other medieval Jewish communities their main lines of thought and religion: the analytical, synthetical, lyric and cabalistic thinking typical of the
Jews from Al-Andalus, the tosafists coming from central Europe and the
Provençal communities. In this environment, Jewish thinkers created all
kinds of literary, philosophical and scientific works and, of course, astronomical and astrological compositions.
* ESPERANÇA VALLS-PUJOL (PhD 2016, University of Girona) is Research Associate at
the Institut d’Estudis Món Juïc in Barcelona and President of the Societat Catalana
d’Estudis Hebraics. Email: espevalls@gmail.com.
82 ESPERANÇA VALLS-PUJOL
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
Astrology was in the Middle Ages a science accepted by most of the cultivated men and was one of the most influential methods of human
knowledge. The disposition and movements of the stars and their constellations were considered a sign of their influence on human society socially as
well as individually. Interest in this field, and in particular on the astrology
applied to medicine, was common in the countries of the Mediterranean
Sea (Cifuentes 2002: 190). Astrologers created detailed doctrines to guarantee the authenticity of astrological practices. Throughout history, this science developed an increasingly elaborate system of professional knowledge.
Astronomy and astrology university chairs were created throughout Europe. Astrological forecasting, however, was officially condemned both in
Jewish and Christian Orthodoxy (Lucas 2003a: 57). Many sages of the late
Middle Ages had to face opposing traditions: on the one hand, attacks by
religious authorities because astrology compromised human free will and,
on the other hand, the vast acceptance of astrology since the 12th century.
In this sense, some astronomers admitted astrology and were practitioners
of this art, others rejected it and still others just ignored it (Goldstein 2012:
139).
In Catalonia, we already find some witnesses in the 10th century,
Sunifred Llobet from Barcelona, who translates a work of astrology from
Arabic to Latin and, in the 11th century, Abbot Oliba, a monk of Ripoll, who
was an expert in astrology and astronomy. In fact, until the 16th century,
there were many prominent sages dedicated to astrology, such as Arnau de
Vilanova, Bernat de Granollacs and Bartomeu Tresbéns, among others.
Ramon Llull also was devoted to this field, although he wanted to do it from
Christian thought. At the time, the role of Catalan Jews who cultivated this
branch of science for their practices, was essential for spreading astrological
doctrines. Nevertheless, the most important stimulus for writing and translating works of astronomy and astrology was the royal court of the 14th century. The kingdoms of Peter III and John I protected their astrologers, often also doctors, and started a decided policy of versions into Catalan and of
drafting original compositions in this language (Cifuentes 2002: 191).
Judaism was no exception. Astrology was part of Jewish culture in medieval Europe. Jews accepted astrological predictions no less than Christian
people. Although religion always was against astrological beliefs, many
prominent figures of Judaism dedicated themselves and defended it, as
Abraham bar Hiyya, Abraham ibn Ezra or Levi ben Gershon. For Jewish
astrologers, however, behind the intervention of the stars over humanity,
there is the divine wisdom and will that act in men through the stars, although Israel was exempt from astral influence (Ein mazal le-Israel). The
kabbalist doctrine of the school of Gerona, promoted by Azriel,
Nahmanides, Ezra, and R. Yonah ben Abraham, was submerged in the as-
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 83
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
trological currents of time, while rationalist authors of the size of Maimonides rejected the rational value of astrology and Kabbalah and had written
forcefully against these beliefs, which assimilated to idolatry. Moshe ben
Maimon argued that astrology leads to the worship of the stars. His strong
opposition to this discipline is evident in his famous letter to the Jews of
Marseilles, as well as in some refutations included in various of his works
(Maimonides 1987: 235). Nevertheless, some of his followers tried to moderate this stiff opposition to be able to enhance astrological notions and ideas, which were at least partly a revival of concepts derived from Judah haLevi and Abraham ibn Ezra (Leicht 2011: 252). Undoubtedly, the medieval
Jews’ debates about magic, astrology and astral magic were influenced by
similar discussions of the cultures that surrounded them (Leicht 2011: 252).
In this regard, Jacques Halbronn wondered if there is a ‘Jewish astrology’:
La place de l’Astrologie dans la pensée et le vécu juifs restait controversée et cela
notamment pour des raisons méthodologiques liées à des définitions fluctuantes
et contradictoires des notions d’astrologie et de judaïsme. Il faut se rendre
d’abord compte de la diversité historique que recouvrent ces deux ensembles
culturels et les évolutions qui en découlent du point de vue des pratiques et des
techniques. Il n’y a pas une astrologie pas plus qu’il n’y a un judaïsme (…).
Existe-t-il une Astrologie à proprement parler juive ? En effet, parmi toutes ces
formes de relation à l’astrologie qui se manifestent dans l’histoire juive des Idées
en est-il qui incarnent plus fidèlement, plus logiquement une démarche ‘juive’
étant admis que souvent le judaïsme n’hésite pas à s’éloigner de ses racines.
Deux points nous semblent, à ce propos, devoir être mentionnés: d’une part, ‘astrologie juive serait une astrologie qui respecterait le caractère d’’élu’ du peuple
juif en le plaçant à part dans le concert des nations—d’où la formule ‘Israël n’a
pas d’étoile’ (n’a pas de gouverneur cosmique, à l’instar des autres peuples)—
d’autre part, une astrologie ‘juive’ semble greffée sur le calendrier plutôt que sur
l’observation constante du ciel. Cela dit, dans les faits ces diverses démarches
sont restées minoritaires et n’épuisent aucunement la question des rapports Astrologie-Judaïsme (1980: 623-624).
Thus, although the ancient astrological sources of Jews and Christians were
the same, many Jewish authors developed this medieval science focused on
their own needs, often as an exegetical tool. As we will see, Nahmanides, in
an ambivalent manner, integrated the conceptions and astrological doctrines of his time in his hermeneutical works, always respecting the concept
of Israel as the chosen people.
Nahmanides View of General Astrology
Talmudist and poet, Moshe ben Nahman, also known as Ramban, was considered the exponent of the Gerona Kabbalah; he was not strange to the
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sciences and doctrines of his time. To expose his ideas, he chose the philosophical and scientific principles that suited him best without rejecting magical and divinatory practices such as necromancy, ornithomancy, physiognomy, palmistry and other esoteric beliefs. According to Tzvi Langermann,
Nahmanides was not against science; he frequently appeals to its teachings,
although on more than one occasion he defers from scientific opinion. This
author defines his attitude as an ‘acceptance and devaluation of science’
within the frame of Jewish religious thought: science is accessible only to an
elite; the Torah tradition is robust and doubt-free (Langermann 1992: 223-
245).
Ramban never wrote a composition strictly devoted to astrological science, unlike Abraham Bar Hiyya or Abraham ibn Ezra, whom Ramban criticised openly more than once. Abraham ibn Ezra’s exegetic works of philology carried much weight at the time of redacting Moshe ben Nachman’s
Perush ha-Torah (Commentary on the Pentateuch). However, it is often an
ambivalent relationship. Ramban criticises his ideas, but at the same time he
uses Ibn Ezra’s philological explanations and coincides in solving many
problems. Thans Ibn Ezra and David Kimhi, Ramban got acquantited with
the philology of the Andalusian grammarians (Feliu 1994: 197, Ratson
2013: 503-523). On another hand, Nahmanides was primarily influenced by
the astrological parts of the messianic and philosophical treatises of Bar
Hiyya, specifically of the Megillat ha-Megalleh. From de point of view of
Hannu Töyrylä, Ramban does not quote this work, but there are similarities
between his and Bar Hiyya’s thought and use of astrology. The reception of
this work among the Jews was, in Töyrylä’s opinion, fragmented. Besides
that, the astrological interpretations of history were translated into Latin
and French, and so Bar Hiyya had some influence among Christians sages
(Töyrylä 2014: 64-65).
Nevertheless, despite admitting the astral influence, Nahmanides did
not recognise astrology as a divinatory science. He affirmed that although
one may not demand an astrologer for a prediction, astrology itself is real.
One must finally trust in God and not in any lesser power. His main idea
was that God has prophets in Israel to announce the forthcoming events
and does not need other methods to predict the future. In some writings,
however, as in the case of in his famous sermon on the perfection of the Torah (Torat ha-shem temimah), Nahmanides seems to contradict himself. He
considered that one is forbidden to ask an astrologer for auguries of the
future, but if the advice is freely given, one may act according to their predictions. As with the Kabbalistic doctrines, Nahmanides was probably of the
opinion that astrological projections had to be kept secret because they
could be misunderstood or even provoke the disproportionate admiration
of the profane to the stars and fall into the idolatry. Furthermore, he be-
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 85
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
lieved that the nature and beings of the sublunary world are subject to the
decrees of the stars. He affirmed that God has the power to override the
ordinances that could adversely affect those who comply with the precepts,
that is to say, to the Jewish people (Valls i Pujol 2007: 281). He asserted that
while the stars give certain inclinations to a person, people can overcome
them and thus maintain free will. In his opinion, astral influences could be
avoided through prayer (Moshe ben Nahman 1993:120-121).
Ramban exposes all these questions in a responsum from the Talmudic
discussion Shabbat 156 a-b:
… it follows that it is permissible to listen to [astrologers] and to believe them.
This is clear from Abraham, who said, ‘I looked at astrological calculations,’ and
from R. Akiba, who worried deeply about his daughter [who had been the subject of a dire astrological prediction] and concluded after she was saved that
charity had rescued her literally from death… However, God sometimes performs a miracle for those who fear him by nullifying the decree of the stars for
them, and these are among the hidden miracles which occur in the ordinary
manner of the world and upon which the entire Torah depends. Consequently,
one should not consult astrologers but should rather go forth in simple faith, as
it is written, ‘You shall be wholehearted with the Lord your God’ (Deuteronomy
18-13). If someone does see something undesirable through astrology, he should
perform good deeds and pray a great deal; at the same time, if he saw through
astrology that a particular day is not auspicious for his work, he should avoid it
and not depend on a miracle. It is my view that it is prohibited to go counter to
the constellations while depending on a miracle (Berger 1983: 119).
On the other hand, he believed that astrological science had to be studied.
For him, the knowledge of the stars, their dispositions and their influences
were another tool to be able to understand well and to discern the hidden
secrets of the biblical passages:
the Torah of the Lord is even more perfect since it returns the soul and makes
the ignorant wise, removing the doubt both from the heart of the sage and from
those who do not understand the movements of the skies and the system of the
stars (Moshe ben Nahman 1993: 102).
In fact, in Ashkenazi culture, astronomy and astrology were essential
branches of knowledge to understand the Talmud and as such were taught
in medieval yeshivot (Leicht 2013: 205-206).
Ein mazal le-Israel
The most prominent rabbinic text about astrology is the discussion of Israel’s subordination to the mazal (ein mazal le Israel, there is no astral predestination for Israel, see Shabbat 156). This fragment begins with a quotation
86 ESPERANÇA VALLS-PUJOL
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
from a pinqas attributed to R. Joshua ben Levi which contains forecasting
based on the day of the week a person was born, with discussions and interpretations ascribed to him later (Leicht 2013: 208, Gardner 2008: 109-148).
The sentence is based on Genesis 17. According to the Jewish Talmudic tradition, Abraham, after the first announcement, called God to tell him that
he had consulted the arrangement of the stars and that according to it, he
could not have children with Sara anymore. God said to him that he did not
need pay attention to these calculations because Israel has no star and that
if he made a pact, an alliance with him, his descendants would multiply.
Tradition claims that on the one hand Abraham, as a member of the people
of Israel, is not subject to the influence of the stars and that on the other
hand, God has the power to do miracles and to modify astral predeterminations.
Thus, often the ancient Jewish sages condemned astrological practices.
Bar Hiyya and Ibn Ezra showed some ambiguity when commenting on this
Talmudic sentence (Valls i Pujol 2007: 273-275). Nahmanides’ position,
however, was unequivocal. In his Sermon on Ecclesiastes, when Ramban
discusses Leviticus 18:15, he stated clearly that Israel is the only nation that
is not subject to the designs of the stars (Moshe ben Nahman 1993: 186). He
does not accept that any planet governs it, nor is it under the influence of
stars or constellations. The land of Israel, which is in the middle of the
world, is the inheritance of God; it is his people and part of it. He did not
assign any stars to govern it or any of his angels, unlike the other nations.
In his Sermon on the Perfection of the Torah (Torat ha-shem temimah),
Ramban argues this opinion:
Holy God, blessed be He, who chose the lineage of Abraham, His friend, as His
portion and granted him the true prophecy so that he did not have to go to dubious prophets… Scripture continues saying: For those nations, which you shall dispossess (Dt 18:14) who are trying to know the future things consulting diviners
and magicians, but you will not have to do it like this, because there will be a
prophet among you and you will do serve the holy spirit; you will not have any
need for them. Moreover, they would not favour Israel, because it has been said:
as for you, the LORD your God has not allowed you to do so (Dt 18:14) because you are
the portion of the Lord, and not of the princes or the constellations… The Scriptures say that in the Land of Israel [those practices] they must not be learned or
do because they will not need them: the prophets will arise from God (Moshe
ben Nahman 1993: 120-121).
In other works, Nahmanides insists on the astrological uniqueness of Israel
against the rest of nations. When he discusses the story of Balaam, he tells
us:
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 87
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
First of all, that it is not God’s will to curse us. We are the portion of God, and we
are not under the influence of stars and constellations, as Balaam said: [A people
who dwells apart, and] shall not be reckoned among the nations (Nm 23: 9). And of
himself, he declares: Since they are not part of God, let my last end be like his! (Nm
23:10), giving us to understand that we are the people that will inherit the garden of Eden… (Moshe ben Nahman 1993: 24)
Ramban does not comment much more about this passage, but his position
leaves no doubt: He understands that the people of Israel are part of a
whole, of God and therefore do not need intermediaries to govern them.
The Astral Magic and Medical Astrology in Nahmanides
Medical astrology and astral magic were, for many Jewish authors, distinct
branches of science. Thus, among the Jewish thinkers who adopted this difference one may mention a contemporary of Ramban, Shem Tov ben Josep
ibn Falaquera (c. 1225-1290), who wrote about astrology and astral magic
separately (Leicht 2012: 286). Many other Jewish sages, although criticising
the considerable theological influence of astrology, recognised its legitimacy.
The case of astral magic was different, however, and it was approached with
some ambivalence (Schwartz 2012: 316).
Nahmanides and his disciple Solomon ben Adret maintained a positive
attitude towards astrological medicine. This doctrine is based on the belief
that planets influence the health of people and on prevention and treatment of the illness. Historically, it was thought that the signs of the zodiac
govern the different limbs and organs of the body, in what is known as
melothesia. The notion probably begins in Egypt, where parts of the body
were long identified with different spirits. In fact, medical astrology, which
should not be confounded with astral magic, was considered a science during medieval times and was taught and developed within university circles
(Caballero Navas 2012: 336).
In this sense, Moshe Ben Nahman used an astrological talisman, a kind
of gold medallion with the image of a recorded lion, to treat ailments of the
kidney. (Caballero Navas 2011:13). Rashba, in a response founded on tradition, accepted this and similar practices, such as the roots amulet or the topaz application (Responsum Rashba I: 167). He affirmed that everything that
is used for medical purposes, if doctors corroborate its therapeutic virtue, is
not a pagan superstition (Feliu 2002-2003: 42).
Astrological medicine, as we will see in the next sections, was accepted
among very prestigious Christian medical scholars linked to the School of
Medicine of Montpellier, men like Arnau de Vilanova, who made a medicinal amulet for Pope Boniface VIII (Caballero Navas 2011:13; Feliu 2002-
2003: 43).
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Regarding astral magic, according to Joseph Stern, Nahmanides’ view is
that this branch is true and therefore forbidden, forbidden because it is true
(Stern 1988: 186). Ramban explained how a higher being governs and
commands every creature and being on earth. The lower celestial powers,
the stars and constellations, are themselves controlled and ruled by higher
heavenly beings, the angels or a separate intellect. To intercede in creation
without ‘modifying the nature of the world’ and without obstructing the
orderly motions of the celestial bodies, God also established ways in which
higher beings could ‘change the behaviours’ of lower things. These ways or
techniques of astral change are what Nahmanides called ‘the ways of the
images (of planets)’ which were a species of astral magic known in the Middle Ages as the lowering of the spiritual influences of the stars. For example,
people who want to transform their appearance draw a picture of a specific
thing when the moon, stars and constellations are in certain astral positions,
write on it name of the hour and the angel designated over that hour and
finally make an incense offering to it. In Ramban’s view, this use of astral
magic does not violate the laws of nature but only manipulates them. It is
based on the ‘science of astrology’, and he declares that all the ‘ancient sciences’ whose interest in the subject was the subject of the demons, magicians and types of incenses offered to the celestial host were ‘spiritual sciences’. When the moon is magically changed through the spiritual sciences,
the only difference between its new movement and appearance and its ‘natural’ motion is that the latter is a ‘simple behaviour’ and its ‘motion’ is the
will of the Creator, while its magically determined movement is the opposite. Therefore, this distinction is sufficient for astral magic to be forbidden
(Stern 1998: 146).
The Relationship between Kabbalistic Doctrines and Astrology
Kabbalistic mystical doctrines often were linked with astrology, magic and
divination. Practical Kabbalah caused a flowering of medieval Jewish magic
and contributed decidedly to increasing the reputation of Jews as magicians
and sorcerers. This 13th century movement adopted astrological concepts
found in ancient Hellenistic astrology, transmitted by Arabic authors. In this
sense, there are explicit connections between the mystic-cabbalistic literature, such as the Sefer Yetzirah, the Zohar or the Sefer Raziel ha-Malach and
astrological concepts. By different methods, the divine name, the Hebrew
consonants, the 12 tribes and the spheres connect with the months of the
year, the planets and the zodiacal houses. Thus, the Sepher Yetzirah contains
several astrological passages in which seven consonants are linked with the
seven planets and seven days of the week, and 12 consonants are linked
with the 12 houses of the zodiac and the 12 months. In the Sepher Raziel haMalach, we find sections and reasonings based on astrology as well as many
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 89
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
of the passages of the Zohar. This foundational Kabbalistic work uses astrological terminology and images, although it is always clear that the last government is of God. Moreover, God, when he established the regency of the
stars for the nations, made an exception with Israel. Other cabalistic works,
such as the Tikkunei Zohar, connect the seven planets with the seven days of
the week and with seven spheres. The 12 houses of the zodiac are related to
the 12 months of the year, the 12 tribes of Israel and the 12 permutations of
the Tetragrammaton. According to the Sefer ha-Reliah, the superior powers
are on the seven planets that govern the divine name of 42 letters. Each
planet receives the appropriate influence from the letters of the name (Valls
i Pujol 2007: 273; Altmann 1972: 788).
One of the relationships between the Kabbalah and astrology is the idea
that both were sciences for initiates. Nahmanides believed that Kabbalistic
doctrines were to be reserved only for the elite because the knowledge and
cabalistic revelations could be used for evil ends and pose a danger. For
many medieval Jewish authors, as shown by the works of Ibn Ezra, astrology was a science that also had to be kept secret and announced only to a
group of chosen people. The knowledge of the movement of the stars could
be used to know the future and to make astrological predictions worldwide.
It was thought possible to determine the course of the historical events of
the countries, and that is why astrology was a science that could be transmitted to only a few to avoid the dangers that it could have in the hands of
people inexperienced, without scruples and with anxieties of power.
Astrology Viewpoints of Christian Thinkers in Ramban Times
Although the rise of the production of astrological works in Catalonia occurs mainly in the 14th century, at the time of Nahmanides, two of the most
outstanding Catalan Christian thinkers treated this discipline in some way
or another: Arnau de Vilanova and Ramon Llull.
For a long time, de Vilanova’s name was associated with a wide variety of
occult arts such as magic, necromancy, astrology and alchemy until he was
considered one of the most prominent masters of the occult. Moreover,
numerous spurious treatises from these disciplines have been attributed to
him. His interest in the science of stars, however, is confirmed by the works
about astronomy and astrology in his library and some references dispersed
throughout his authentic medical work (Giralt 2017: 3). Indeed, he was one
of the thinkers who initiated the process of rationalising and incorporating
late medieval therapeutic methods coming from astrology and natural magic into Galenist medicine. In fact, de Vilanova advised that unfavourable
astrological conditions should be avoided when bleeding patients and, like
Nahmanides and Ben Adret, he prescribed applying astrological seals or
medals over the members affected by pain (Leo’s seal are the most attested
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PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
astrological amulet employed by de Vilanova). Both indications were based
on the zodiacal melothesia, which claims that each part of the human body
falls under the influence of a given zodiac sign (Giralt and Mensa 2013).
Nevertheless, these remedies were quite rare in his medicine, and most of
his curative measures were based on the regime and compound drugs
based on the patient’s constitution and nature.
In fact, de Vilanova was familiar with Jewish Kabbalah and other forms
of prognostication. He studied Hebrew and Arabic and produced works on
the names of God such as the Allocutio super significatione nominis Tetragrammaton. However, de Vilanova condemned magic in the Libellus de improbatione maleficiorum. In De parte operativa, de Vilanova contends that astrology
is a dangerous form of magic, but he accepts the influence of the stars on
humankind (Scot 1978: 19). Thus, his interest in astrology did not differ
substantially from the rise of this discipline and the acceptance of contemporaneous thinkers of his time. Sebastià Giralt, after examining and analysing the contents of the astrological works attributed to de Vilanova and authentic writings and their textual tradition, concludes that he did not write
any treatise that could be qualified as astrological. In his view, Giralt argues
that de Vilanova’s dedication to astrology was late and somewhat superficial,
perhaps developed to impress his high-rank patients, and that he did not
study it sufficiently well to create a work on this matter (Giralt 2017: 19).
Llull also was interested in medical astrology, regarding the complexion
of humans together with drugs derived from plants and linked with the
stars. He wrote the Tractatus novus de astronomia in Paris, the first complete
work of astrology written in Catalan (1297). It is not a compendium of astrology from previous scholars and thinkers but a guide for the application
of general art to this field of knowledge. Llull developed a new system to
determine the meaning of the astral conjunctions that he called devictio
based on the book Liber introductorius of Ali al-Qabisi (Alcabitius) and other
basic manuals (see Scot 1978). According to this ‘new astrology’, the complicated astronomical calculations with tables and astrolabes were not necessary because it was enough to know the stars that concur in a given moment
and the elementary complexion of each one of them. On the other hand, in
this simplification of astrology, free will is entirely defended (Cifuentes
2002: 208-209). Although the arguments are not new, the way Llull weaves
his thinking on the matter into the framework of his Art general furnishes
original nuances. Llull’s knowledge of astrology derives from the astronomical culture that surrounded him, although he did not have sufficient command of this subject (Samsó 1981-1983: 216).
In this work, he corrects technical mistakes of ancient astrology based
upon his reading of Arabic sources. He assumes that Greek and Arabic astrologers understood the science as absolute, based on a priori premises.
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 91
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
Because they did not have any clear scientific framework upon which to
base their claims, their forecasts were as often false as true. Llull followed
the ancients in postulating two properties for each element, but he suggested that one of these is essential and the other accidental. This allowed the
proposal of a more flexible form of medical astrology and opened the door
to the influence of human will and divine providence (Lucas 2003b: 130-
131).
Furthermore, Llull, at the end of the Tractatus, warned the princes and
judges to ignore the false prognostic of astrologers and those who use geomancy. His astrological method intended to condemn bad practices and lay
the intellectual tools to deal with impostors. In the view of Harvey J Hames,
Llull’s opinion concerning astrology coincides with both Nahmanides and
Ben Adret about God’s power to override the stars and planets, that is it is
God Himself and not stars, angels or constellations who cares for Jews, unlike the other nations (Hames 2000: 259). Ultimately, Llull recognised an
astral influence of celestial bodies on inferior beings. There is a celestial soul
that moves the world. The high essences reflect on the sublunary world
through the astral bodies. All this astral influence, however, has a limit,
which is the freedom of the human soul (Millàs 1962: 271).
Like Nahmanides and other Christian and Jewish thinkers, Llull tried to
develop an astrology that was not in contradiction with divine omnipotence
or free will (Samsó 1981-1983: 205). Besides, in the manner of the Kabbalists, he was afraid that early study of this field without the necessary intellectual grounding could lead to its being misinterpreted and use inadequately. He believed astrology, like other sciences, should not be learned if it
was not studied according to of the methodology of the art (Hames
2000:121). Ultimately, most remarkable is Llull’s interest in the cosmological
dimension of astronomy, which in the field of medical practice manifested
itself in the therapeutic use of the influences of the stars. Like Ramban,
Llull rejected other astrological methods considered non-scientific in his
time, such as prediction through horoscope (Llull 2002: 123-155).
Conclusions
Influences and exchange of information among Muslim, Jewish and Christian cultures in medieval sciences were frequent. It should not be forgotten
that all three were nourished from ancient Greek and Latin sources. In
Middle Ages, there was an enormous translator activity of Greek, Persian
and Hindu scientific treatises, especially astronomical and astrological, to
Latin, Hebrew, Arabic and Romance languages. It was usual to associate
these fields of scientific knowledge with Jews especially for the extraordinary relevance and diffusion acquired by the works of Bar Hiyya and, mainly, of Ibn Ezra. Thus, Jews managed to create their specific understanding
92 ESPERANÇA VALLS-PUJOL
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
of non-Jewish sciences, such as astrology. Their extraordinary faith in the
abilities of man to understand the secrets of creation through God’s guidance made it possible for these thinkers to become a referent by non-Jewish
authors of a science of the stars set in the context of a monotheistic system
(Lelli 2015: 132-134).
In this regard, most Jewish thinkers accepted astrology, although not all
of them admitted the same degree of its validity. Some medieval scholars
rejected it entirely, like Moshe ben Maimon, although his attitude of opposition to magic and astral practices for scientific and religious reasons seems
less in Medieval Jewish society. Among those who embraced it, we find two
currents: admitting only the influence of heavenly bodies on the sublunary
world, which is the opinion followed by Nahmanides, or understanding astrology as a tool for ‘guessing the future’, a conception followed by Bar Hiyya and Ibn Ezra. For all, however, astrology was considered a science and
not just an esoteric doctrine. Nahmanides, like many thinkers of his time,
admitted an astral influence, but he did not accept astrology as a divinatory
science.
Bar Hiyya and Ibn Ezra intended to introduce the sciences into Jewish
thought, and the biblical exegesis was the excuse, whereas for Nahmanides
the tool was the astrological notion, or whatever best suited, to explain the
biblical passages and introduce their mystical and religious doctrines. He
incorporated the astrological beliefs of his time in his exegetical works, asserting the idea that Israel is not determined by any star because it only responds to God. In his works, in contrast to Maimonides, integrates a wider
variety of magical and celestial creatures and spiritual beings. He solved the
epistemological problem by asserting that all knowledge is found in the Torah (Langermann 1992: 223-224, 234). In fact, Nahmanides and his circle
and other medieval thinkers such as Judah ha Leví or Ibn Ezra, explained
the significance and influence of the commandments using magic-astral
models and methods, generating a new attitude within medieval Jewish philosophy (Schwartz 2004: 25).
On the other hand, the study of medieval medicine and its application
cannot be separated by astrological practice because it was considered that
the stars had a direct influence not only on the development of the human
body, from birth to death, but also on disease processes which affect it.
Therefore, astronomy and astrology were an essential part of the curriculum of medical schools. Nahmanides, as well as his disciple Ben Adret, accepted and practiced astrological medicine. Llull and de Vilanova, the most
outstanding contemporary Christian thinkers of Ramban who both kept
abreast of Kabbalistic doctrines, also devoted themselves to this astrological
discipline. All of them agreed and acknowledged the influence of the stars
on humankind but condemned astral magic.
Nahmanides’ Astrological and Religious Thinking 93
PERICHORESIS 18.4 (2020)
Like Nahmanides, Llull tried to develop an astrology that did not contradict the idea of divine omnipotence or free will. Llull’s astrological position remains within the limits of the Christian view; more ambiguous is the
de Vilanova’s position, while Ramban uses astrology in a thoroughly Jewish
frame. However, although all three perceive the danger of studying astrology without a prerequisite intellectual base, Llull applies a kind of Christian
censorship and delimits his study to the parameters of the Art general he
elaborated. By contrast, Nahmanides does not restrict its knowledge but
encourages learning it to understand biblical and Talmudic writings better.
Finally, compared to de Vilanova and Llull, Nahmanides possesses a
much more in-depth knowledge of astrological science—and therefore astronomical—primarily based on the study and reading of the Jewish authors who preceded him, mainly Bar Hiyya. This is shown in all his hermeneutical works when he skilfully uses the resources of the magic and astrology to argue his religious purposes.
Bibliography
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